1.Ankarklev J, Jerlström-Hultqvist J, Ringqvist E, Troell K, Svärd SG. Behind the smile: cell biology and disease mechanisms of Giardia species. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(6):413-422. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2317
2.Savioli L, Smith H, Thompson A. Giardia and Cryptosporidium join the 'Neglected Diseases Initiative'. Trends Parasitol. 2006;22(5):203-208. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2006.02.015
3.Robertson LJ, Gjerde BK, Furuseth Hansen E, et al. Giardia duodenalis cysts isolated from wild moose and reindeer in Norway: genetic characterization by PCR-RFLP and sequence analysis at two genes. J Parasitol. 2006;92(5):1025-1030. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-43.4.576
4.Adam RD. Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14(3):447-475. doi:10.1017/S1431927604040954
5.Halliez MC, Buret AG. Extra-intestinal and long-term consequences of Giardia duodenalis infections. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19(47):8974-8985. doi:10.3748/wjg.v19.i47.8974
6.Ryan U, Hijjawi N, Feng Y, Xiao L. Giardia: an under-reported foodborne parasite. Int J Parasitol. 2019;49(1):1-11. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.07.003
7.Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Robertson LJ, Franco RM. Giardiasis: pharmacotherapy options. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2019;20(15):1849-1862. doi:10.1517/14656566.8.12.1885
8.World Health Organization. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 4th ed. World Health Organization; 2011. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2022.103353
9.Adam RD. Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001 Oct;14(3):447-75. doi: 10.1128/CMR.14.3.447-475.2001.
10.Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Robertson LJ, Franco RM. Giardiasis: the ever-present threat of a neglected disease. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2010 Jun;24(2):297-316. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2010.01.009.
11.Hanevik K, Wensaas KA, Rortveit G, Eide GE, Mørch K, Langeland N. Irritable bowel syndrome and chronic fatigue 6 years after Giardia infection: a controlled prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jan;58(3):341-6. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit724.
12.Ryan U, Cacciò SM. Zoonotic potential of Giardia. Int J Parasitol. 2013 Nov;43(12-13):943-56. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.06.001.
13.Feng Y, Xiao L. Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011;24:110–40. doi:10.1128/CMR.00033-10
14.Ryan U, Cacci SM. Zoonotic potential of Giardia. Int J Parasitol. 2013;43:943–56. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00033-10
15.Savioli L, Smith H, Thompson A. Giardia and cryptosporidium join the ‘neglected diseases initiative’ Trends Parasitol. 2006;22:203–208. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2006.02.015
16.Smith HV, Mank TG. Diagnosis of human Giardiasis. In: Lujan HD, Svard S, Eds , editors. Giardia a model organism. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2011. pp. 353–74. doi:10.18502/ijpa.v18i2.13180
17.Hooshyar H, Ghafarinasab S, Arbabi M, Delavari M, Rasti S. Genetic variation of Giardia lamblia isolates from food-handlers in Kashan, central Iran. Iran J Parasitol. 2017;12:83–89. PMCID: PMC5522702, PMID: 28761464
18.Stark D, Barratt JL, Van Hal S, Marriott D, Harkness J, Ellis JT. Clinical significance of enteric protozoa in the immunosuppressed human population. Clin Microbiol Rev . 2009;2:634–50. doi:10.1128/CMR.00017-09
19.Daryani A, Sharif M, Meigouni M, Mahmoudi FB, Rafiei A, Gholami S, et al. Prevalence of intestinal parasites and profile of CD4+ counts in HIV+/AIDS people in north of Iran, 2007-2008. Pak J Biol Sci . 2009;12:1277–81. doi:10.3923/pjbs.2009.1277.1281
20.Elmi T, Gholami Sh, Rahimi-Esboei B, Garaili Z, Najm M, Tabatabaie F. Comparison of sensitivity of sucrose gradient, wet mount and formalin – ether in detecting protozoan Giardia lamblia in stool specimens of BALB/c mice. J Pure Applied Microbiol . 2017;11:105–109. doi:10.22207/JPAM.11.1.14
21.Wolfe MS. Giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1992;5:93–100. doi:10.1128/CMR.5.1.93
22.Soares R, Tasca T. Giardiasis: an update review on sensitivity and specificity of methods for laboratorial diagnosis. J Microbiol Methods. 2016;129:98–102. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2016.08.017
23.Gutiérrez-Cisneros MJ, Martínez-Ruiz R, Subirats M, Merino FJ, Millán R, Fuentes I. Assessment of two commercially available immunochromatographic assays for a rapid diagnosis of Giardia duodenalis and crypstosporidium spp. in human fecal specimens. Enferm Inf Microbiol Clin. 2011;29:201–203. doi: 10.1016/j.eimc.2010.09.005
24.Soares R, Tasca T. Giardiasis: an update review on sensitivity and specificity of methods for laboratorial diagnosis. J Microbiol Methods. 2016;129:98–102. doi:10.1016/j.mimet.2016.08.017
25.John DT, Petri WA, Markell EK, Voge M, Eds , editors. Markell and Voge's medical parasitology. New York: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2006. pp. 404–5. doi:10.21125/inted.2023.1933
26.Hiatt RA, Markell EK, Ng E. How many stool examinations are necessary to detect pathogenic intestinal protozoa? Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53:36–9. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1995.53.36
27.Goka AK, Rolston D, Mathan V, Farthing M. The relative merits of faecal and duodenal juice microscopy in the diagnosis of giardiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990;84:66–7. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(90)90386-S
28.Oguoma VM, Ekwunife CA. The need for a Better Method: Comparison of direct smear and formol-ether concentration techniques in diagnosing intestinal parasites. Int J Trop Med . 2007;3:1–8. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0436
29.Carvalho GL, Moreira LE, Pena JL, Marinho CC, Bahia MT, Machado-Coelho GL. A comparative study of the TF-Test®, Kato-Katz, Hoffman-Pons-Janer, Willis and Baermann-Moraes coprologic methods for the detection of human parasitosis. Memórias do Ins Oswaldo Cruz. 2012;107:80–84. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762012000100011
30.Engels D, Nahimana S, Gryseels B. Comparison of the direct faecal smear and two thick smear techniques for the diagnosis of intestinal parasitic infections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1996;90:523–5. doi:10.1016/S0035-9203(96)90304-1
31.Babaei Z, Oormazdi H, Rezaie S, Rezaeian M, Razmjou E. Giardia intestinalis: DNA extraction approaches to improve PCR results. Exp Parasitol. 2011;128:159–62. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2011.02.001
32.Xiao LI, Herd RP. Quantitation of giardia cysts and cryptosporidium oocysts in fecal samples by direct immunofluorescence assay. J Clin Microbiol . 1993;31:2944–6. doi:10.1128/JCM.31.11.2944-2946.1993
33.Mank TG, Zaat JO, Blotkamp J, Polderman AM. Comparison of fresh versus sodium acetate acetic acid formalin preserved stool specimens for diagnosis of intestinal protozoal infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1995;14:1076–81. doi:10.1007/BF01590942
34.Palmer J. Modified iron hematoxylin/Kinyoun stain. Clin Microbiol News. 1991;13:39–40. doi:10.1177/030098587901600212
35.Garcia LS, editor. Diagnostic medical parasitology. 5th edition. Washington, D.C, USA: ASM Press; 2007. pp. 759–63. doi:10.1016/0196-4399(94)90055-8
36.Bullock WL. The use of the Kohn chlorazol black fixative-stain in an intestinal parasite survey in rural Costa Rica. J Parasitol. 1980;66:811–3. doi:10.2307/3280674
37.Graham CC, Diamond LS. Methods for cultivation of luminal parasitic protists of clinical importance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15:329–41. doi:10.1128/CMR.15.3.329-341.2002
38.Keister DB. Axenic culture of Giardia lamblia in TYI-S-33 medium supplemented with bile. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1983;77:487–8. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(83)90120-7
39.Beal CB, Viens P, Grant RG, Hughes JM. A new technique for sampling duodenal contents. Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1970;19:349–52. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1970.19.349
40.Korman SH, Hais ED, Spira DT. Routine in vitro cultivation of Giardia lamblia by using the string test. J Clin Microbiol. 1990;28:368–9. doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.2.368-369.1990
41.Gordts B, Hemelhof W, Van Tilborgh K, Retore P, Cadranel S, Butzler JP. Evaluation of a new method for routine in vitro cultivation of Giardia lamblia from human duodenal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 1985;22:702–4. doi: 10.1128/jcm.22.5.702-704.1985
42.Gordts B, Retore P, Cadranel S, Hemelhof W, Rahman M, Butzler JP. Routine culture of Giardia lamblia trophozoites from human duodenal aspirates. Lancet. 1984;324:137–8. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(84)91050-x
43.Rosenthal P, Liebman WM. Comparative study of stool examinations, duodenal aspiration, and pediatric Entero-Test for giardiasis in children. J pediatrics. 1980;96:278–9. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(80)80826-2
44.Hall EJ, Rutgers HC, Batt RM. Evaluation of the peroral string test in the diagnosis of canine giardiasis. J Small Anim Pract. 1988;29:177–83. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5827.1988.tb02275.x
45.Heyworth MF. Diagnostic testing for giardia infections. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2014;108:123–5. doi: 10.1093/trstmh/tru005
46.Faubert G. Immune response to Giardia duodenalis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000;13:35–54. doi:10.1128/CMR.13.1.35-54.2000
47.Fink , Singer S. The intersection of immune responses, microbiota, and pathogenesis in giardiasis. Trend Parasitol. 2017;33:901–13. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.198.Supp.216.10
48.Adam RD. Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14:447–75. doi:10.1128/CMR.14.3.447-475.2001
49.Abdulla DA. Coccidiosis in domesticated duck in Nineveh governorate. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2010;24(2):93-97. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2010.5602
50.Al-Taee AF, Mohammed RG, Mohammed NH. Diagnosis of some helminthic eggs in faces of ducks and geese in Nineveh governorate, Iraq. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2011;25(1):5-10. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2011.5696
51.Mohammed NH. Study on the blood protozoa in geese. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2020;34(1):23-27. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2019.125499.1028
52.Mohammad Z.A. Some chewing lice (Phthiraptera) species as ectoparasites infested aquatic birds with a new record of three species from Al-Sanaf marsh/ southern Iraq. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2020;34(1):173-180. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2019.125721.1139
53.Mohammed NH. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. In feces of ducks in Nineveh governorate. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2009;23(1):1-5. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2009.5689
54.Mohammed NH. Prevalence of Giardia spp. in ducks and geese in Nineveh governorate. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2009;23(1):1-5. doi: 10. 338999/ijvs.2012.35197
55.Coles, E.H. Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 4th Edition, W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1986; 17-19. doi: 10.1111/vcp.13118
56.Feng Y, Xiao L. Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011 Jan;24(1):110-40. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00033-10.
57.Smith HV, Cacciò SM, Cook N, Nichols RA, Tait A. Cryptosporidium and Giardia as foodborne zoonoses. Vet Parasitol. 2007;149(1-2):29-40. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.07.015
58.Johnson DW, Pieniazek NJ, Griffin DW, Misener L, Rose JB. Development of a PCR protocol for sensitive detection of Giardia intestinalis in wastewater. Water Res. 1995;29(6):1511-1518. doi:10.1016/0043-1354(94)00393-l
59.Adamska M, Leśniańska K, Sawczuk M, et al. Molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis strains from humans in Poland. Parasitol Res. 2015;114(6):2345-2350. doi:10.1007/s00436-015-4448-5
60.Alfatlawy HH, Alfatlawi MA. Morphological and molecular identification of Parabronema skrjabini of camels (Camelus dromedary) in Najaf province. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2021;35(3):507-12. doi: 10.33899/ijvs.2020.127101.1459
61.Alfatlawi MSH, Alfatlawi MA. Molecular and phylogenetic study of Theileria spp isolated from ticks in Al-Diwaniyah City, Iraq. Iraqi J Agricul Sci. 2019;50(1):475-79. doi: https://doi.org/10.36103/ijas.v50i1.313
62.Klaif SF, Jassim A, Alfatlawi MA, Ali MA. Major-surface-protein-4-gene-based detection of Anaplasma marginale isolated from sheep in Al-Diwaniyah province, Iraq. Iraqi J Vet Sci. 2022;36(3):85-88. doi:10.33899/ijvs.2021.129230.1635
63.Monis PT, Caccio SM, Thompson RCA, Sundar N. Multilocus genotypic analysis of Giardia intestinalis isolates: evidence of genetic recombination and zoonotic transmission. Int J Parasitol. 1999;29(12):1899-908. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000558.
64.Sulaiman IM, Fayer R, Bern C, Gilman RH, Trout JM, Schantz PM et al. Triosephosphate isomerase gene characterization and potential zoonotic transmission of Giardia duodenalis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(11):1444-52. doi: 10.3201/eid0911.030084.
65.Read C, Walters J, Robertson ID. Correlation between genotype of Giardia duodenalis and diarrhoea. Int J Parasitol. 2004;34(6):717-21. doi:10.1016/s0020-7519(01)00340-x
66.Lebbad M, Petersson I, Karlsson L, Botero-Kleiven S, Andersson JO, Svenungsson B et al. Multilocus genotyping of human Giardia isolates suggests limited zoonotic transmission and association between assemblage B and flatulence in children. PLOS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(8):e1262. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001262.