Al-Qadisiyah Journal of Veterinary Medicine Sciences

Abstract Yersinia enterocolitica remains an underestimated foodborne zoonotic pathogen with a complex biology that links animal reservoirs, contaminated foods, environmental persistence, intestinal invasion, immune evasion, and post-infectious complications. Although most infections are self-limiting, severe disease may occur in children, elderly individuals, immunocompromised patients, and cases associated with septicemia, transfusion-transmitted infection, or invasive extraintestinal spread. The pathogen is distinguished by marked heterogeneity among biotypes, serotypes, virulence plasmid profiles, chromosomal pathogenicity determinants, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns. Recent genomic surveillance has improved the resolution of outbreak detection, source tracing, and lineage characterization, while molecular diagnostics have reduced the delay associated with culture-based methods. However, underdiagnosis remains a major limitation, especially in regions where yersiniosis is not routinely monitored. The increasing detection of multidrug-resistant isolates from food, animals, and environmental sources has renewed interest in preventive strategies beyond conventional antimicrobial therapy. Bacterial ghosts represent a promising vaccine and delivery platform because they preserve native bacterial surface antigens and pathogen-associated molecular patterns while lacking viable genetic and cytoplasmic contents. This review integrates recent evidence on Y. enterocolitica epidemiology, virulence, diagnosis, genomics, resistance, and bacterial ghost technology, and proposes a conceptual framework for developing mucosal bacterial ghost vaccines against enteric yersiniosis.

Abstract Balantidium coli is a rare protozoan that infects humans. It is the only known ciliate parasite in people. The infection often comes from pigs or primates. It spreads through food or water that has been contaminated. Some people have no symptoms. Others may get diarrhea, dysentery, or long-term bowel problems. Studies show that B. coli can change the gut microbiome. Helpful bacteria like Bacteroidota and short-chain fatty acid producers may decrease. Harmful bacteria such as Campylobacterota and Brachyspira may increase. These shifts can harm the gut lining and trigger inflammation. The parasite eats bacteria, damages the gut wall, and changes nutrient levels. The immune system’s reaction can also promote harmful bacteria. These changes can remain after the infection clears, raising the chance of future illness. This imbalance can weaken the gut barrier. Bacteria may then pass into the blood. The balance of short-chain fatty acids may also change, affecting colon health and metabolism. Chronic cases may cause poor nutrient absorption. Checking the gut microbiome could help diagnose the infection. It could also guide treatment. Using antiparasitic drugs with probiotics or prebiotics may help restore balance. Understanding how B. coli affects gut bacteria could lead to better ways to prevent and treat the disease in people and animals.